ÿWPCC- ¢Æ„:ñuóý½œ-^'ýwFy¤üù«åíõ Çz ûœD¥69ø<[Ú%lb É»S‚ŽZõc–ýÀËw~Îaº:G-Ḛ̀K£Ù:Å6L;>.&£N¶¥0ã9¯HZ,†"v¿À4’/J6E“Sz³’Õ¬-w²NHТ®S²ªM [Ï‚ÌÂÊÖkÐFŽD0BâÌáêþñ­Ñë*ùÌ`æ9rm R‡_`5ý‚¯:5»5×ë8»¢xq®¹yê4hÌ—c3aÐÛ¯¿[…?}XZz ‰îTV¤º[¼bù¶OìÍJ7Až…šÓè­¿v¥˜ÏSöå²§ý'1¶2<´à¬þô-«$‚½¸nr„#é~ÓÚjèãËgO“ŽÈ xþ³Æ}Pà{)5´”^t"¾U¶˜Ù¼P(âÆu,ÃÖA¹ÿë3ѽÀ¼nSvUõ©iÝÓÜA›Ü“aˈRõ]5ê…3=ßN¼‹¿Îå}ŒKYd/…Íœ¯áy°qqûЭðÆ<-€JRAaäF{¾- )£ùÓÏDÇ ÈI*º«å¿#×¶If) ºWúž•×3ÇZK!’倭Z¨|G nCŲÞÿ„†Šê÷«r}ë»`Eb %\^ b 0ˆnUNöwD4H\ zkÒå· m¹ ^Ð #Á. Æï ƵÆ{ÆAÔNÛ 0 DÝÕ!EöPøÏH½”ÔThÕ¼! 1u‘# 72$ 0 c8$ 1›$ 72(% 1Z% 72ç% 1& 1¦& 723' 72e'e'e'e'e'e'e'b—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—'—' AŸŸ'Ÿ'Ÿ' 0 ë>(>(>(>( B)))) 0¤F) D5ê) D-* 0KL*L* AS—*Æê* 0¤°+ 0DT, A«˜,»C,+s (`£ª$¡¡Ñ€.ÑÑ8€½­»»d»»d8ÑÑ ý ÑÓ  Ó(í€"  Z6Times New Roman RegularÑB+xÙ¡3|x ˜C:\PROGRA~1\COREL\WORDPE~1\TEMPLATE\CUSTOM~1\REVISE~1.WPTC:\Program Files\Corel\WordPerfect Office 2000\Template\Custom WP Templates\revised standard opinion.wpt ÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ  HuxCullenCallcottWashburnMayersKershmanBuchignaniHollarsUrnessBulsoCowdenSovranBonfilsClaborn N.E.Seaver Jur€Assn€Natl€AssnCatesBekaertRaritanTownem]embershipchargebackpromiseesLockwoode]ach€NatlNatlAssn˜HP LaserJet 4050 Series PCL 5eÈÈ,,,,ÈÈ0Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5‚Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5„Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5…Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5 ÊÝ ƒR##$ÝÓ  Óà  àòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÔ€ô¡Íò»»ÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔDefendant€Concord€EFS,€Inc.€is€the€parent€company€of€EFS€National€Bank,€Inc.(#Ã$òòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó ËÝ ƒR##$ÝÓ  Óà  àòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÔ€ô¡Íò»»ÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔIt€is€undisputed€that€Flying€J€and€Pilot€charged€a€higher€price€for€fuel€purchased€with€credit€cards€than€for€fuelÐ ° Ðpurchased€with€cash.€€However,€Flying€J€and€Pilot€deny€that€they€imposed€surcharges€on€credit€card€transactions.€Ð tÄ ÐInstead,€they€contend€that€they€provided€discounts€on€cash€purchases.€€The€practical€distinction€between€a€surcharge€onÐ 8ˆ Ðcredit€card€purchases€versus€a€discount€on€cash€purchases€is€not€entirely€clear,€but€our€disposition€of€this€case€makes€itÐ üL Ðunnecessary€to€resolve€this€question. FÝ ƒR##$ÝÓ  Óà  àòòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÔ€ô¡Íò»»ÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔRule€12.02€provides€in€pertinent€part:€Ð ° ÐÌà8  àà8` Ð Ð àEvery€defense€.€.€.€to€a€claim€for€relief€in€any€pleading€.€.€.€shall€be€asserted€in€theÐ 8ˆ Ðresponsive€pleading€thereto€if€one€is€required,€except€that€the€following€defensesÐ üL Ðmay€at€the€option€of€the€pleader€be€made€by€motion€in€writing:€.€.€.€(6)€failure€toÐ À Ðstate€a€claim€upon€which€relief€can€be€granted. ÅÝ ƒR##$ÝÓ  Óà  àòòÚ  Ú7Ú  ÚóóÔ€ô¡Íò»»ÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔRestatement€(Second)€of€Contracts€Chapter€14,€introductory€note€(1979). ³Ý ƒR##$ÝÓ  Óà  àòòÚ  Ú6Ú  ÚóóÔ€ô¡Íò»»ÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔIn€their€response€to€the€defendantsðð€application€for€permission€to€appeal,€the€plaintiffs€raise€three€additionalÐ ° Ðissues:€€(1)€whether€the€Court€of€Appeals€erred€in€holding€that€they€were€not€intended€third„party€beneficiaries€of€theÐ tÄ ÐVisa„EFS€and€MasterCard„EFS€contracts;€(2)€whether€this€Court€should€enter€summary€judgment€for€the€plaintiffs€onÐ 8ˆ Ðthe€issue€of€liability;€and€(3)€whether€the€Court€of€Appeals€erred€in€holding€that€Owner„Operator€lacked€associationalÐ üL Ðstanding€to€seek€relief€on€behalf€of€its€members.€€With€respect€to€issue€(1),€we€find€no€error€and€hold€that€the€plaintiffsÐ À Ðare€not€third„party€beneficiaries€of€the€Visa„EFS€and€MasterCard„EFS€contracts€for€the€same€reasons€discussed€òòinfraóóÐ „Ô Ðregarding€the€EFS„Flying€J€and€EFS„Pilot€contracts.€€Our€resolution€of€the€third„party€beneficiary€issues€in€favor€of€theÐ H ˜ Ðdefendants€renders€it€unnecessary€for€us€to€address€the€remaining€issues€the€plaintiffs€have€raised. ŠÝ ƒR##$ÝÓ  Óà  àòòÚ  Ú4Ú  ÚóóÔ€ô¡Íò»»ÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔTenn.€R.€Civ.€P.€56.02€provides,€ð ðA€party€against€whom€a€claim€.€.€.€is€asserted€or€a€declaratory€judgment€isÐ ° Ðsought€may,€at€any€time,€move€.€.€.€for€a€summary€judgment€in€the€partyððs€favor€as€to€all€or€any€part€thereof.ðð€€The€trialÐ tÄ Ðcourt€may€treat€motions€to€dismiss€made€pursuant€to€Tenn.€R.€Civ.€P.€12.02(6)€as€motions€for€summary€judgment€ifÐ 8ˆ Ðð ðmatters€outside€the€pleading€are€presented€to€and€not€excluded€by€the€court.ðð€€Tenn.€R.€Civ.€P.€12.02. JÝ ƒR##$ÝÓ  Óà  àòòÚ  Ú5Ú  ÚóóÔ€ô¡Íò»»ÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔAlthough€the€court€concluded€that€Owner„Operator€did€not€meet€the€test€for€associational€standing€and€thusÐ ° Ðcould€not€maintain€an€action€in€its€own€name€on€behalf€of€its€members,€it€nonetheless€pointed€out€that€the€members€ofÐ tÄ ÐOwner„Operator€could€continue€to€seek€the€same€injunctive€relief€that€Owner„Operator€had€sought€and€that€Owner„Ð 8ˆ ÐOperator€could€continue€to€support€its€members€in€the€action.€€ ËÝ ƒR##$ÝÓ  Óà  àòòÚ  Ú8Ú  ÚóóÔ€ô¡Íò»»ÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔThe€promisees€in€those€contracts€owed€the€plaintiffs€no€duty€that€would€be€discharged€by€prohibition€ofÐ ° Ðsurcharges,€and€we€conclude€that€the€parties€to€the€Visa€and€MasterCard€contracts€did€not€express€a€clear€intent€that€theÐ tÄ Ðprimary€and€direct€benefit€of€the€contracts€flow€to€the€plaintiffs.3#37=CIQYag­­1.a.i.(1)(a)(i)1)a)i)(;3£$´´Ô2#ÔÚ  Ú0Ú  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0  à(¶ÙCEMU]emu}AutoList2(1)(1)(1)(1)(1)(1)(1)(1) (1)(ÆÙCEMU]emu}AutoList3(1)(1)(1)(1)(1)(1)(1)(1)"(1)(ÖÙCEMU]emu}AutoList4(1)(1)(1)(1)(1)(1)(1)(1)(× CEMU]emu}AutoList1(a)(a)(a)(a)(a)(a)(a)(a)%(a)$(1)- ù-X[Z‘ I&mage <=8ÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿCÿÿ HKKKK(|G2##$¤¤Ý ƒ£ª!ÝÑ€.ÑÑ8€õ»»dXXdì8ÑÑ ý ÑÓ  ÓÝ  Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú0Ú  ÚóóÔ€ô¡Íò»»Ô d(|3Y$££Ý ƒ£ª!ÝÑ€.ÑÑ8€õ»»dXXdì8ÑÑ ý ÑÓ  ÓÝ  ÝVVVV)ÿÿ!dxdx)!ÈÈÈÈdxdx( ±þ$’’ò òFigure€Ú  Ú1Ú  Úó ó^_X`YEþÿ<<CÿÿƒLevel 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5(|3Y$¢¢Ý ƒ£ª!ÝÑ€.ÑÑ8€õ»»dXXdì8ÑÑ ý ÑÓ  ÓÝ  Ý($$””ò òÚ  Ú1Ú  Úó óX[Z&OLE 2.0 Box <=8ÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿCÿÿ HKKKKÝ ƒ£ª!ÝÑ€.ÑÑ8€õ»»ddÈ8ÑÑ ý ÑÓ  ÓÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÑ  ÑÑ  ÑÔ€¼õ»»»ÔÑ8€]IXXdì»»d8Ñà@™ ™ ìàÔ‡î$õÔIN€THE€SUPREME€COURT€OF€TENNESSEEˆÐ ° Ðà@kk$ìàAT€NASHVILLEÔ#†¼õ»îî$ #ԈРÖ& ÐÓ  ÓFebruary€6,€2001€SessionÐ üL ÐÔ‡X]IX»¼õÔÌò òÔ#†¼õ»XX]Iò#ÔOWNER„OPERATOR€INDEPENDENT€DRIVERS€ASSOCIATION,€INC.,Ð úJ Ðòòet€al.óó€v.€CONCORD€EFS,€INC.,€òòet€alóó.Ô‡X]IX»¼õÔó óÐ  ^ ÐÌà@@½½ìàò òAppeal€from€the€Court€of€Appeals,€Middle€SectionÐ  ^ ÐChancery€Court€for€Williamson€CountyÔ#†¼õ»XX]I±#ÔÔ‡X]IX»¼õÔÐ ú J Ðà@@øøìàNo.€I„25387€€€€€Cornelia€A.€Clark,€ChancellorÐ æ 6  ÐÌà@@ìì*ìàßA€V) °°` d€÷E<½` AßÐ ¾  ÐÌà@@TTìàNo.€M1999„02560„SC„R11„CV€„€Filed€September€12,€Ô_Ô2001Ô_ÔÐ ¹  ÐÌßA€V) °°` d¼4E<` AßßA€V) °°` dE<` AßÐ ‘á  Ðó óÌÓ  ÓÔ#†¼õ»XX]IŠ#ÔÔ€X]IX»¼õÔThe€plaintiffs,€who€are€or€independent€truck€drivers€and€their€representatives,€claim€they€are€intendedÐ ŒÜ Ðthird„party€beneficiaries€of€certain€contracts€between€Flying€J,€Inc.,€Pilot€Corporation,€and€EFSÐ xÈ ÐNational€Bank,€Inc.€€The€plaintiffs€contend€that€Flying€J,€Inc.€and€Pilot€Corporation€breached€theirÐ d´ Ðcontracts€with€EFS€National€Bank,€Inc.€by€improperly€imposing€surcharges€on€diesel€fuel€purchasedÐ P  Ðwith€certain€credit€cards.€€For€the€alleged€breaches,€the€plaintiffs€seek€damages€and€injunctive€relief.€Ð <Œ ÐAfter€thorough€consideration€and€due€deliberation,€we€conclude€that€the€plaintiffs€are€not€intendedÐ (x Ðthird„party€beneficiaries€of€the€contracts€and€thus€have€no€standing€to€sue.€€Accordingly,€we€reverseÐ d Ðthe€judgment€of€the€Court€of€Appeals.Ð P ÐÓ“ÓÌò òTenn.€R.€App.€P.€11€Appeal€by€Permission;€Judgment€of€the€Court€of€Appeals€Reversedó óÐ Ø( ÐÌòòÓ  ÓAdolpho€A.€Birch,€Jr.,óó€J.,€delivered€the€opinion€of€the€court,€in€which€ò òòòó óE.€Riley€Anderson,€C.J.,Ð ° ÐFrank€F.€Drowota,€III,€€Janice€M.€Holder,€óóand€òòWilliam€M.€Barker,€JJ.,ò òó óóó€joined.Ð œì ÐÌJonathan€A.€Dibble€and€Eric€D.€Barton,€Salt€Lake€City,€Utah,€and€Eugene€N.€Bulso,€Jr.€and€Thor€Y.Ð t Ä ÐUrness,€Nashville,€Tennessee,€for€the€appellant,€Flying€J,€Inc.Ð `!°  ÐÌRobert€R.€Campbell€and€Amy€V.€Hollars,€Knoxville,€Tennessee,€for€the€appellant,€Pilot€Corporation.Ð 8#ˆ" ÐÌW.€Gary€Blackburn€and€John€R.€Callcott,€Nashville,€Tennessee,€and€Paul€D.€Cullen,€Sr.,€Joyce€E.Ð %` $ ÐMayers,€and€Amy€Irene€Washburn,€Washington,€D.C.,€for€the€appellees,€Owner„OperatorÐ ü%L!% ÐIndependent€Drivers€Association,€Inc.,€Harold€Landry,€Jimmy€Hux€(d/b/a/€Hux€Trucking),€RichardÐ è&8"& ÐKershman,€and€Laurel€Barrick.Ð Ô'$#' ÐÌJ.€Richard€Buchignani,€Douglas€A.€Black,€and€Lyle€Reid,€Memphis,€Tennessee,€for€the€appellees,Ð ¬)ü$) ÐConcord€EFS,€Inc.€and€EFS€National€Bank,€Inc.Ð ˜*è%* ÐÌÓï ÓÌà@@OO&ìàò òOPINIONó óÐ \-¬(-ý ЇÓ  Óà@üüìàI.€€Facts€and€Procedural€HistoryˆÐ ° ÐÌà  àPlaintiffs€Harold€Landry,€Jimmy€Hux€(d/b/a€Hux€Trucking),€Richard€Kershman,€and€LaurelÐ ˆØ ÐBarrick€are€independent€truck€drivers€and€members€of€Owner„Operator€Independent€DriversÐ tÄ ÐAssociation,€Inc.€(Owner„Operator).€€On€several€occasions,€the€plaintiffs€purchased€fuel€at€truckÐ `° Ðstops€operated€by€defendants€Flying€J,€Inc.€(Flying€J)€and€Pilot€Corporation€(Pilot)€using€Visa€orÐ L œ ÐMasterCard€credit€cards€issued€by€defendant€EFS€National€Bank,€Inc.€(EFS).׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€According€to€theÐ 8 ˆ Ðplaintiffsðð€complaint,€Flying€J€and€Pilot€imposed€surcharges€upon€these€purchases€in€violation€ofÐ $ t Ðcontracts€between€Flying€J,€Pilot,€and€EFS€prohibiting€surcharges€on€purchases€made€by€use€of€aÐ  ` ÐVisa€or€MasterCard€credit€card.׃T×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€The€plaintiffs€assert€that€they€are€intended€third„party€beneficiariesÐ ü L  Ðof€these€contracts.€Ð è 8  ÐÌà  àAs€noted€by€the€Court€of€Appeals,€an€examination€of€the€consumer€credit€system€is€essentialÐ À  Ðto€an€understanding€of€the€contracts€at€issue.€€In€a€basic€sense,€the€chain€of€relationships€governingÐ ¬ü  Ðconsumer€credit€transactions€has€four€ð ðlinksðð:€€(1)€credit€card€associations,€(2)€member€banks,€(3)Ð ˜è  Ðmerchants,€and€(4)€cardholders.€€The€credit€card€associations,€which€in€this€case€are€controlled€byÐ „Ô  ÐVisa€and€MasterCard,€are€national€associations€that€license€use€of€their€logos€and€service€marks€andÐ pÀ Ðfacilitate€credit€card€transactions.€€Only€banks€and€other€similar€financial€institutions€may€becomeÐ \¬ Ðmembers€of€the€Visa€and€MasterCard€associations.€€These€banks€enter€into€membership€agreementsÐ H˜ Ðwith€Visa€and€MasterCard;€the€agreements€incorporate€the€rules€and€regulations€of€Visa€andÐ 4„ ÐMasterCard€and€allow€the€member€banks€to€provide€credit€card€processing€services.€€The€memberÐ  p Ðbanks€perform€two€functions€in€processing€credit€card€transactions:€€(1)€ð ðissuing€banksðð€contract€withÐ  \ Ðconsumers,€issue€credit€cards€to€them,€and€maintain€charge€accounts;€while€(2)€ð ðmerchant€banksððÐ øH Ðcontract€with€merchants€who€wish€to€accept€credit€cards€and€process€transactions€between€merchants,Ð ä4 Ðcard€associations,€and€issuing€banks.Ð Ð  ÐÌà  àWhen€a€cardholder€wishes€to€use€a€credit€card€to€make€a€purchase,€he€or€she€presents€the€cardÐ ¨ø Ðto€the€merchant,€who€usually€ð ðswipesðð€the€card€through€an€electronic€point„of„sale€device.€€TheÐ ”ä Ðdevice€reads€information€from€the€card€and€transmits€it,€along€with€information€about€the€intendedÐ €Ð Ðpurchase,€to€the€credit€card€association,€which€in€turn€relays€the€information€to€the€issuing€bank.€€TheÐ l¼ Ðissuing€bank€confirms€the€validity€of€the€card€and€determines€whether€the€transaction€is€within€theÐ X ¨ Ðcardholderððs€credit€limits.€€If€the€issuing€bank€approves€the€transaction,€it€transmits€approval€to€theÐ D!” Ðmerchant,€who€then€completes€the€sale.Ð 0"€  ÐÌà  àThe€transaction€is€then€processed€through€a€series€of€interchanges€conducted€over€theÐ $X" Ðmember€banksðð€communications€network.€€The€merchant€bank€forwards€payment€to€the€merchant,Ð ô$D # Ðminus€a€processing€fee,€and€then€submits€a€claim€to€the€issuing€bank.€€The€issuing€bank€makesÐ ° Ðpayment€through€the€credit€card€association,€which€deducts€a€service€fee€and€forwards€the€balanceÐ œì Ðto€the€merchant€bank.€€The€issuing€bank€then€bills€the€cardholder€for€his€or€her€purchase.€€Thus,€theÐ ˆØ Ðmerchant€bank,€the€issuing€bank,€and€the€credit€card€association€each€make€a€small€profit€every€timeÐ tÄ Ðthe€cardholder€uses€the€credit€card.Ð `° ÐÌà  àThe€issue€under€submission€originated€in€the€four€separate€contractual€relationships€betweenÐ 8 ˆ Ð(1)the€Visa€credit€card€association€and€EFS;€(2)€the€MasterCard€association€and€EFS;€(3)EFS€andÐ $ t ÐFlying€J;€and€(4)€EFS€and€Pilot.€€The€Visa„EFS€and€MasterCard„EFS€contracts€establish€EFS€as€aÐ  ` Ðmerchant€bank€in€the€two€credit€card€associations.€€Both€contracts€incorporate€the€rules€andÐ ü L  Ðregulations€of€the€respective€associations,€and€EFS€agrees€in€both€contracts€to€be€bound€by€thoseÐ è 8  Ðregulations.€€Both€Visaððs€Operating€Regulations€and€MasterCardððs€Rules€contain€provisionsÐ Ô$  Ðprohibiting€surcharges€on€credit€card€transactions,€and€EFS€is€instructed€to€ensure€that€merchantsÐ À  Ðwith€whom€it€contracts€observe€this€prohibition.€€In€addition,€the€MasterCard€Rules€state€that€ð ðtheseÐ ¬ü  Ðrules€are€intended€to€be€solely€for€the€benefit€of€[MasterCard]€and€its€members,ðð€and€the€Visa€by„Ð ˜è  Ðlaws€provide€that€ð ðMembership€in€the€[Visa€association]€shall€not€be€transferable€or€assignable.ðð€Ð „Ô  ÐBoth€the€Visa€and€MasterCard€associations,€however,€have€made€efforts€to€notify€cardholders€of€theÐ pÀ Ðno„surcharge€provision,€including€publication€of€the€provision€on€the€Internet.€Ð \¬ ÐÌà  àThe€EFS„Flying€J€and€EFS„Pilot€contracts€govern€the€obligations€of€the€parties€in€processingÐ 4„ ÐVisa€and€MasterCard€transactions.€€Flying€J€and€Pilot€both€agree€that€they€ð ðshall€not€impose€anyÐ  p Ðsurcharge€on€transactionsðð€and€that€they€will€be€bound€by€the€rules€of€Visa€and€MasterCard.€Ð  \ ÐAdditionally,€Flying€J€and€Pilot€warrant€that€transactions€transmitted€to€EFS€ð ðrepresent[]€a€validÐ øH Ðobligation€for€the€amount€set€forth€therein€.€.€.€and€.€.€.€there€have€been€no€service,€carrying€or€anyÐ ä4 Ðspecial€charges€.€.€.€extracted€in€connection€with€the€sale.ðð€Ð Ð  ÐÌà  àThe€plaintiffs€are€not€parties€to€any€of€the€contracts€described€above.€€In€April€1998,€however,Ð ¨ø Ðthey€filed€suit€contending€that,€as€cardholders,€they€were€intended€third„party€beneficiaries€of€the€no„Ð ”ä Ðsurcharge€provisions€in€the€contracts.€€The€defendants€moved€to€dismiss€the€complaint€pursuant€toÐ €Ð ÐTenn.€R.€Civ.€P.€12.02(6),׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€asserting€that€the€plaintiffs€lacked€standing€to€sue€on€the€contracts.€€AfterÐ l¼ Ðextensive€procedural€wrangling€between€the€parties,€the€trial€court€ruled€that€the€defendantsðð€motionsÐ X ¨ Ðwould€be€treated€as€motions€for€summary€judgment,׃(×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú4Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€which€it€then€granted.€€The€Court€of€AppealsÐ D!” Ðaffirmed€in€part€and€reversed€in€part€the€decision€of€the€trial€court.€€It€upheld€the€grant€of€summaryÐ 0"€  Ðjudgment€to€the€defendants€on€the€Visa„EFS€and€MasterCard„EFS€contracts,€holding€that€theÐ ° Ðcontractual€provision€directing€EFS€to€use€its€best€efforts€to€prevent€merchants€from€imposingÐ œì Ðsurcharges€was€insufficient€to€establish€the€plaintiffs€as€intended€third„party€beneficiaries.€€The€courtÐ ˆØ Ðreversed€the€grant€of€summary€judgment€on€the€EFS„Flying€J€and€EFS„Pilot€contracts,€however,Ð tÄ Ðholding€that€the€plaintiffs€were€intended€third„party€beneficiaries€entitled€to€enforce€those€contracts.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú5Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð `° ÐÌà  àThe€defendants€appealed€to€this€Court,€contending€that€the€Court€of€Appeals€erred€in€holdingÐ 8 ˆ Ðthat€the€plaintiffs€were€intended€third„party€beneficiaries€of€the€EFS„Flying€J€and€EFS„PilotÐ $ t Ðcontracts.€€We€granted€review,€and€after€thorough€examination€of€the€record€and€relevant€authority,Ð  ` Ðwe€hold€that€the€plaintiffs€are€not€intended€third„party€beneficiaries.€€Accordingly€we€reverse€theÐ ü L  Ðjudgment€of€the€Court€of€Appeals.׃ ×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú6Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð è 8  ÐÌÓ  ÓII.€€Standard€of€ReviewÐ À  ÐÓË0ÓÌà  àThis€case€comes€to€the€Court€on€a€motion€for€summary€judgment.€€Summary€judgment€isÐ ˜è  Ðentered€in€favor€of€a€party€when€ð ðthere€is€no€genuine€issue€as€to€any€material€fact€and€.€.€.€the€movingÐ „Ô  Ðparty€is€entitled€to€a€judgment€as€a€matter€of€law.ðð€€Tenn.€R.€Civ.€P.€56.04.€€Because€summaryÐ pÀ Ðjudgment€involves€only€questions€of€law€and€not€factual€disputes,€no€presumption€of€correctnessÐ \¬ Ðattaches€to€a€lower€courtððs€ruling€on€a€motion€for€summary€judgment.€€Thus,€on€appeal,€we€reviewÐ H˜ Ðthe€grant€of€summary€judgment€de€novo€to€determine€whether€the€requirements€of€Tenn.€R.€Civ.€P.Ð 4„ Ð56€have€been€met.€€òòCowden€v.€Sovran€Bank/Central€Southóó,€816€S.W.2d€741,€744€(Tenn.€1991)Ð  p Ð(citing€òòHill€v.€City€of€Chattanoogaóó,€533€S.W.2d€311,€312€(Tenn.€Ct.€App.€1975)).Ð  \ ÐÌÓ  ÓIII.€€AnalysisÐ ä4 ÐÓ½4ÓÌà  àGenerally,€contracts€are€presumed€to€be€ð ðexecuted€for€the€benefit€of€the€parties€thereto€andÐ ¼  Ðnot€third€persons.ðð€€òòOman€Constr.€Co.€v.€Tennessee€Cent.€Ry.€Co.óó,€370€S.W.2d€563,€572€(Tenn.Ð ¨ø Ð1963).€€Indeed,€traditional€privity€rules€provided€that€those€who€were€not€parties€to€a€contract€hadÐ ”ä Ðno€right€to€sue€for€its€breach.€€òòSee€generallyóó€Richard€A.€Lord,€òòWilliston€on€Contractsóó€ðð€37:1€(4th€ed.Ð €Ð Ð2000);€òòsee€also,€e.g.óó,€òòExchange€Bank€of€St.€Louis€v.€Riceóó,€107€Mass.€37€(1871)€(ð ð[A]€person€whoÐ l¼ Ðis€not€a€party€to€a€simple€contract€.€.€.€cannot€sue€on€the€contract,€and€.€.€.€a€promise€made€by€oneÐ X ¨ Ðperson€to€another,€for€the€benefit€of€a€third€person€who€is€a€stranger€to€the€consideration,€will€notÐ ° Ðsupport€an€action€by€the€latter.ðð).€€The€inflexibility€of€that€rule,€however,€has€given€way€to€anÐ œì Ðexception€when€the€contracting€parties€express€an€intent€that€the€benefits€of€the€contract€flow€to€aÐ ˆØ Ðthird€party.€€As€stated€by€one€court,€ð ðThe€third„party€beneficiary€concept€arises€from€the€notion€thatÐ tÄ Ðððit€is€just€and€practical€to€permit€the€person€for€whose€benefit€the€contract€is€made€to€enforce€itÐ `° Ðagainst€one€whose€duty€is€to€payðð€or€perform.ðð€€òòFourth€Ocean€Putnam€Corp.€v.€Interstate€WreckingÐ L œ ÐCo.óó,€485€N.E.2d€208,€211€(N.Y.€1985)€(quoting€òòSeaver€v.€Ransomóó,€120€N.E.€639,€640€(N.Y.€1918)).€Ð 8 ˆ ÐÌà  àUnder€the€modern€rule,€third€parties€may€enforce€a€contract€if€they€are€intended€beneficiariesÐ  ` Ðof€the€contract.€òòSeeóó€òòWillard€v.€Clabornóó,€419€S.W.2d€168,€169€(Tenn.€1967);€òòMoore€Constr.€Co.€v.Ð ü L  ÐClarksville€Dept.€of€Elec.óó,€707€S.W.2d€1,€9€(Tenn.€Ct.€App.€1985).€€If,€on€the€other€hand,€the€benefitÐ è 8  Ðflowing€to€the€third€party€is€not€intended,€but€is€merely€incidental,€the€third€party€acquires€no€rightÐ Ô$  Ðto€enforce€the€contract.€€òòWillardóó,€419€S.W.2d€at€170.€€€€In€order€to€maintain€an€action€as€an€intendedÐ À  Ðbeneficiary,€a€third€party€must€show:€€ð ð(1)€a€valid€contract€made€upon€sufficient€considerationÐ ¬ü  Ðbetween€the€principal€parties€and€(2)€the€clear€intent€to€have€the€contract€operate€for€the€benefit€ofÐ ˜è  Ða€third€party.ðð€€òòFirst€Tennessee€Bank€Natððl€Assððn€v.€Thoroughbred€Motor€Cars,€Inc.óó,€932€S.W.2dÐ „Ô  Ð928,€930€(Tenn.€Ct.€App.€1996)€(citing€òòUnited€American€Bank€of€Memphis€v.€Gardneróó,€706€S.W.2dÐ pÀ Ð639,€641€(Tenn.€Ct.€App.€1985)).€€The€evidence€of€intent€to€confer€a€benefit€must€be€clear€and€direct:Ð \¬ ÐÌà8  àà8` Ð Ð àIt€must€appear,€in€order€that€a€third€person€may€derive€a€benefit€fromÐ 4„ Ða€contract€between€two€other€parties,€that€the€contract€was€made€andÐ  p Ðentered€into€directly€or€primarily€for€the€benefit€of€such€third€person,Ð  \ Ðand€before€he€can€avail€himself€of€the€exceptional€privilege€of€suingÐ øH Ðfor€a€breach€of€agreement€to€which€he€is€not€a€party€he€must€at€leastÐ ä4 Ðshow€that€it€was€intended€for€his€direct€benefit.ÐÐ ` x` x ÐòòÌAbraham€v.€Knoxville€Television,€Inc.óó,€757€S.W.2d€8,€11€(Tenn.€Ct.€App.€1988).€€Ð ¨ø ÐÌà  àAlthough€the€distinction€between€intended€and€incidental€beneficiaries€seems€fairly€clear,€itÐ €Ð Ðhas€proven€in€practice€to€be€extraordinarily€difficult€to€define.€€òòSeeóó€òòMoore€Constr.€Co.óó,òòóó€707€S.W.2dÐ l¼ Ðat€7€(noting€that€ð ðthe€ideas€behind€the€theory€are€obscure€and€elusiveðð€and€ð ðthe€decisions€areÐ X ¨ Ðinconsistent€and€in€apparent€conflict.ðð).€€This€Court€first€set€out€standards€for€differentiating€betweenÐ D!” Ðintended€and€incidental€beneficiaries€in€òòWillard€v.€Clabornóó,€419€S.W.2d€168€(Tenn.€1967).€€InÐ 0"€  ÐòòWillardóó,€this€Court€held€that€where€ð ðthe€terms€of€the€contract€itself€or€the€circumstances€surroundingÐ #l! Ðits€execution€clearly€indicate€the€contract€was€intended€to€operate€to€the€benefit€of€some€thirdÐ $X" Ðperson,ðð€the€beneficiary,€though€not€a€party€to€the€contract,€may€maintain€an€action€against€theÐ ô$D # Ðpromisor.€€òòId.óó€at€170.€€Adopting€the€approach€proposed€in€the€Restatement€(First)€of€Contracts€ðð€133Ð à%0!$ Ð(1932)òòóó,€the€òòWillardóó€Court€held€that€third„party€beneficiaries€could€be€grouped€into€threeÐ Ì&"% Ðclassifications:Ð ¸'#& ÐÌà8  àà8` Ð Ð àFirst,€where€the€performance€of€the€promise€will€constitute€a€gift€toÐ )à$( Ðthe€beneficiary;€the€beneficiary€is€a€donee€beneficiary.€€Second,€if€noÐ |*Ì%) Ðpurpose€to€make€a€gift€appears€from€the€terms€of€the€contract€and€theÐ h+¸&* Ðperformance€of€it€will€satisfy€an€actual€or€supposed€asserted€duty€ofÐ ° Ðthe€promisee€to€the€beneficiary;€the€beneficiary€is€a€creditorÐ œì Ðbeneficiary.€€Third,€in€all€other€cases€the€beneficiary€is€deemed€to€beÐ ˆØ Ðan€incidental€beneficiary.ÐtÄ` x` x ÐÌòòId.óóÐ L œ ÐÌà  à€The€test€adopted€in€òòWillardóó,€however,€did€not€prove€to€be€entirely€satisfactory.€€òòSeeóó€òòMooreÐ $ t ÐConstr.€Co.óó,€707€S.W.2d€at€7„8€(providing€a€general€discussion€of€cases€in€which€application€of€theÐ  ` ÐòòWillardóó€test€was€impractical);€òòbut€cf.óó€Lord,€òòsupraóó,€ðð€37:7€at€35„35€(observing€that€ð ðcases€could€beÐ ü L  Ðfound€where€beneficiaries€had€properly€been€considered€protected,€although€they€fit€comfortablyÐ è 8  Ðwithin€neither€typical€scenario,ðð€but€nevertheless€concluding€that€ð ðthe€traditional€terminology€is€bothÐ Ô$  Ðconvenient€and€analytically€sound.ðð).€€Subsequent€to€òòWillardóó,€in€1979,€the€American€Law€InstituteððsÐ À  ÐRestatement€(Second)€of€Contracts€proposed€a€new€third„party€beneficiary€analysis.€€Under€the€testÐ ¬ü  Ðset€forth€in€the€Restatement€(Second),€the€original€ð ðdoneeðð€and€ð ðcreditorðð€beneficiary€language€wasÐ ˜è  Ðdiscarded€because€of€ð ðovertones€of€obsolete€doctrinal€difficultiesðð׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú7Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€and€was€replaced€by€an€ð ðintendedÐ „Ô  Ðbeneficiaryðð€category.€€The€revised€language€perhaps€more€accurately€reflects€the€goal€of€determiningÐ pÀ Ðthe€intent€of€the€contracting€parties:Ð \¬ ÐÌà  àà8 ` àIntended€and€Incidental€Beneficiaries.Ð4„` x` x ÐÌÓ€ $(ÖÙ83ÓÝ"‚3£"ÝÝ  Ýà8  àà8` Ð Ð àà8¸ ` x` xàÝ‚3£üPÝÔ2ÖÙÔ(Ú  Ú1Ú  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0¸ ¸ àÝ  ÝUnless€otherwise€agreed€between€promisorÐ  \ Ðand€Ô_ÔpromiseeÔ_Ô,€a€beneficiary€of€a€promise€is€anÐ øH Ðintended€beneficiary€if€recognition€of€a€rightÐ ä4 Ðto€performance€in€the€beneficiary€isÐ Ð  Ðappropriate€to€effectuate€the€intention€of€theÐ ¼  Ðparties€and€either:݃3£üP]Q݌Шø   ÐŒÝ  Ýà8  àà8` Ð Ð àà8¸ ` x` xàà  à(a)à0h¸ ¸ àthe€performance€of€the€promise€willÐ ”ä Ðsatisfy€an€obligation€of€the€promisee€toÐ €Ð Ðpay€money€to€the€beneficiary;€orÐl¼h h  ÐÓ€ %(× 88$ÓØ! !ØÝ"‚3£"ÝÝ  Ýà8  àà8` Ð Ð àà8¸ ` x` xàà0¸ ¸ àÝ‚3£!UÝÔ2× Ô(Ú  ÚbÚ  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0h  àÝ  Ýthe€circumstances€indicate€that€theÐ X ¨ Ðpromisee€intends€to€give€theÐ D!” Ðbeneficiary€the€benefit€of€the€promisedÐ 0"€  Ðperformance.݃3£!U–UÝŒÐ#l!h h  ÐŒÝ  ÝÓ€ "(ÆÙ88%ÓØ! !ØÝ"‚3£"ÝÝ  Ýà8  àà8` Ð Ð àà8¸ ` x` xàÝ‚3£ŽWÝÔ2ÆÙÔ(Ú  Ú2Ú  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0¸ ¸ àÝ  ÝAn€incidental€beneficiary€is€a€beneficiary€whoÐ $X" Ðis€not€an€intended€beneficiary.݃3£ŽWïWÝŒÐô$D #   ÐŒÝ  ÝÌRestatement€(Second)€of€Contracts€ðð€302€(1979).€€In€òòMoore€Constr.€Co.óó,€the€Court€of€Appeals€citedÐ Ì&"% Ðthe€Restatement€(Second)€approach€with€approval:Ð ¸'#& Ðâ âÐ ¤(ô#' Ðà8  àà8` Ð Ð à[I]f€recognition€of€a€third€party€beneficiaryððs€rights€is€ð ðappropriate€toÐ ° Ðâ âeffectuate€the€intention€of€the€partiesðð€and€if€there€is€either€anÐ œì Ðexpression€in€the€contract€that€the€contracting€parties€intended€toÐ ˆØ Ðbenefit€the€third€party€(the€ð ðintent€to€benefitðð€test)€or€proof€that€theÐ tÄ Ðpromisorððs€performance€will€otherwise€discharge€a€duty€owed€to€aÐ `° Ðthird€party€beneficiary€by€the€promisee€(the€ð ðduty€owedðð€test),€thenÐ L œ Ðthe€third€party€beneficiary€can€maintain€an€action€on€the€contract.Ð8 ˆ` x` x ÐÌ707€S.W.2d€at€9.Ð  ` ÐÌà  àSubsequently,€both€òòWillardóó€and€òòMoore€Constr.€Co.óó€have€been€relied€upon€as€authority€byÐ è 8  ÐTennessee€courts.€€òòCompare,€e.g.óó,€òòFirst€Tennessee€Natððl€Assððnóó,€932€S.W.2d€at€930€(applying€òòMooreÐ Ô$  ÐConstr.€Co.óó€in€preference€to€òòWillardóó)€òòwithóó€òòAbrahamóó,€757€S.W.2d€at€11€(citing€the€language€adoptedÐ À  Ðin€òòWillardóó).€€As€recently€as€1994,€in€òòSpeaker€v.€Cates€Co.óó,€this€Court€relied€upon€òòWillardóó,€but€in€soÐ ¬ü  Ðdoing€did€not€consider€the€merits€of€the€language€proposed€in€the€Restatement€(Second).€€òòSeeóóÐ ˜è  ÐòòSpeaker€v.€Cates€Co.óó,€879€S.W.2d€811€(Tenn.€1994).Ð „Ô  ÐÌà  àAfter€a€thorough€review€of€relevant€authority,€we€conclude€that€this€Court€also€should€restateÐ \¬ Ðthe€analysis€to€be€used€in€evaluating€third„party€beneficiary€cases.€€Our€objective€is€to€provide€anÐ H˜ Ðanalytical€framework€which€allows€the€contracting€parties€to€control€the€terms€of€their€agreement,Ð 4„ Ðyet€which€remains€sufficiently€broad€to€ensure€that€the€rights€of€intended€third„party€beneficiariesÐ  p Ðin€all€cases€will€be€protected.€€Accordingly,€we€hold€as€follows:Ð  \ ÐÌà8  àà8` Ð Ð àA€third€party€is€an€intended€third„party€beneficiary€of€a€contract,€andÐ ä4 Ðthus€is€entitled€to€enforce€the€contractððs€terms,€ifÐÐ ` x` x ÐÌà8  àà8` Ð Ð à(1)à0¸ ` x` xàThe€parties€to€the€contract€have€not€otherwise€agreed;Шø¸ x¸ x Ðà8  àà8` Ð Ð àà0¸ ` x` xàà ` à(2)à ¸ àRecognition€of€a€right€to€performance€in€the€beneficiary€isÐ ”ä Ðappropriate€to€effectuate€the€intention€of€the€parties;€and€Ð€Ð¸ x¸ x Ðà8  àà8` Ð Ð àà0¸ ` x` xàà ` à(3)à ¸ àThe€terms€of€the€contract€or€the€circumstances€surroundingÐ l¼ Ðperformance€indicate€that€either:ÐX ¨¸ x¸ x Ðà8  àà ` àà8¸ Ð Ð à(a)à0¸ ¸ àthe€performance€of€the€promise€will€satisfy€anÐ D!” Ðobligation€or€discharge€a€duty€owed€by€theÐ 0"€  Ðpromisee€to€the€beneficiary;€orÐ#l!   Ðà8  àà ` àà8¸ Ð Ð à(b)à0¸ ¸ àthe€promisee€intends€to€give€the€beneficiaryÐ $X" Ðthe€benefit€of€the€promised€performance.Ðô$D #   ÐÌIn€so€holding,€we€reiterate€that€our€primary€focus€is€upon€the€intent€of€the€contracting€parties.€€Thus,Ð Ì&"% Ðpart€(1)€of€the€test€provides€that€courts€should€honor€any€expression€of€intent€by€the€parties€to€reserveÐ ¸'#& Ðto€themselves€the€benefits€of€the€contract.€€Likewise,€part€(2)€ensures€that€third„party€beneficiariesÐ ¤(ô#' Ðwill€be€allowed€to€enforce€the€contract€only€when€enforcement€would€further€the€partiesðð€objectivesÐ )à$( Ðin€making€the€agreement.€€In€applying€this€part,€courts€should€look€to€what€the€parties€intended€toÐ |*Ì%) Ðaccomplish€by€their€agreement,€and€a€third€party€should€not€be€deemed€an€intended€beneficiary€if€soÐ h+¸&* Ðdoing€would€undermine€the€partiesðð€purposes.€€Part€(3)€provides€guidance€for€differentiating€betweenÐ ° Ðintended€and€incidental€beneficiaries.€€Ð œì ÐÌà  àIn€part€(3),€we€focus€upon€the€promiseeððs€intent,€and€not€the€promisorððs,€because€ð ð[i]n€thirdÐ tÄ Ðparty€cases,€the€right€of€[the€third]€party€does€not€depend€upon€the€purpose,€motive,€or€intent€of€theÐ `° Ðpromisor.€€The€motivating€cause€of€[the€promisorððs]€making€the€promise€is€usually€his€desire€for€theÐ L œ Ðconsideration€given€by€the€promisee.ðð€€4€Corbin€on€Contracts€ðð€776€(1951).€€Subsection€(a)€of€thisÐ 8 ˆ Ðpart€encompasses€those€beneficiaries€which€under€theòòóó€Restatement€(First)€would€have€been€deemedÐ $ t Ðð ðcreditor€beneficiaries.ðð€€òòCf.óó€òòRaritan€River€Steel€Co.€v.€Cherry€Bekaert€&€Hollandóó,€407€S.E.2d€178,Ð  ` Ð182€(N.C.€1991)€(comparing€the€Restatement€(First)€and€Restatement€(Second)€approaches).€€ThoughÐ ü L  Ðthis€section€is€based€upon€the€Restatement€(Second),€our€analysis€is€broader€in€that€it€focuses€uponÐ è 8  Ðthe€promiseeððs€intent€to€ð ðdischarge€a€dutyðð€rather€than€upon€obligations€of€the€promisee€to€payÐ Ô$  Ðmoney€to€the€beneficiary.€€We€choose€this€analysis€because€of€the€foreseeable€circumstances€underÐ À  Ðwhich€analysis€of€the€promiseeððs€intent€would€fit€more€comfortably€within€the€analytical€frameworkÐ ¬ü  Ðof€subsection€(a)€even€though€the€duty€owed€to€the€beneficiary€is€not€easily€convertible€into€money.€Ð ˜è  ЀÌà  àNotably,€the€contracting€parties€in€subsection€(a)€cases€will€not€necessarily€express€a€directÐ pÀ Ðdesire€to€confer€a€benefit€upon€the€third€party,€for€the€promisee€often€may€be€motivated€by€a€self„Ð \¬ Ðinterested€intent€to€discharge€the€duty€owed€to€the€third€party.€€As€noted€in€one€California€case,€ð ðinÐ H˜ Ðcontracts€of€the€creditor€beneficiary€type€the€main€purpose€of€the€promisee€is€not€to€confer€a€benefitÐ 4„ Ðon€the€third€party€beneficiary,€but€to€secure€the€discharge€of€his€debt€or€performance€of€his€duty€toÐ  p Ðthe€third€party.ðð€€òòHartman€Ranch€Co.€v.€Associated€Oil€Co.óó,€73€P.2d€1163€(Cal.€1937).€€RegardlessÐ  \ Ðof€self„interest,€however,€a€clear€expression€of€intent€to€discharge€a€duty€owed€by€the€promisee€toÐ øH Ðthe€third€party€will€satisfy€subsection€(a).€€Ð ä4 ÐÌà  àUnder€subsection€(b),€the€analysis€more€directly€centers€upon€whether€the€promisee€actuallyÐ ¼  Ðintends€to€confer€a€benefit€upon€the€third€party.€€Part€(b)€analysis€will€encompass€those€beneficiariesÐ ¨ø Ðwho€under€the€Restatement€(First)€were€deemed€ð ðdonee€beneficiaries,ðð€and€it€will€also€encompassÐ ”ä Ðthose€beneficiaries€who€do€not€seem€to€fit€clearly€within€either€of€the€original€Restatement€categoriesÐ €Ð Ðof€donee€or€creditor€beneficiary,€yet€who€clearly€were€intended€by€the€parties€to€receive€the€primaryÐ l¼ Ðbenefit€of€the€contract.€€òòCf.,€e.g.óó,€Restatement€(Second)€of€Contracts€ðð€302€cmt.€d€(1979)€(discussingÐ X ¨ Ðð ð[s]ituations€in€which€neither€a€debt€analysis€nor€a€gift€analysis€is€satisfactoryðð).Ð D!” ÐÌà  àHaving€established€the€test€to€be€used€in€third„party€beneficiary€cases,€we€now€apply€that€testÐ #l! Ðto€the€case€at€bar.€€We€first€determine,€under€part€(1),€whether€the€parties€have€agreed€that€no€third„Ð $X" Ðparty€beneficiaries€are€intended.€€Significantly,€the€EFS„Flying€J€and€EFS„Pilot€contracts€both€stateÐ ô$D # Ðthat€they€ð ðcannot€be€assigned€to€any€party€by€Merchant.ðð€€While€these€statements€do€not€explicitlyÐ à%0!$ Ðexclude€third„party€claims,€the€Court€of€Appeals€has€noted€that€similar€statements€have€ð ðbeen€heldÐ Ì&"% Ðto€demonstrate€that€the€terms€of€the€contract€were€intended€only€to€benefit€the€parties€to€theÐ ¸'#& Ðcontract.ðð€€òòFirst€Tennessee€Bank€Natððl€Assððnóó,€932€S.W.2d€at€931.€€Moreover,€the€Visa€andÐ ¤(ô#' ÐMasterCard€rules€and€regulations,€which€were€incorporated€into€both€the€EFS„Flying€J€and€EFS„PilotÐ )à$( Ðcontracts,€seem€to€imply€an€intent€to€restrict€the€agreement€to€the€parties.€€For€example,€MasterCardððsÐ |*Ì%) ÐRules€state€that€they€are€ð ðintended€to€be€solely€for€the€benefit€of€the€[MasterCard]€Corporation€andÐ h+¸&* Ðits€members.ðð€€On€the€other€hand,€the€exclusivity€statements€relied€upon€by€the€defendants€are€largelyÐ ° Ðindirect€and,€in€the€case€of€the€only€direct€statement,€which€is€in€the€MasterCard€Rules,€the€statementÐ œì Ðis€concerned€with€applicability€of€the€Rules€themselves€and€does€not€directly€involve€the€EFS„FlyingÐ ˆØ ÐJ€and€EFS„Pilot€contracts.€€Thus,€while€these€statements€weigh€in€favor€of€a€finding€that€the€partiesÐ tÄ Ðintended€to€exclude€third„party€beneficiary€claims,€we€hesitate€to€give€the€same€dispositive€weightÐ `° Ðto€the€statements€that€we€would€to€an€explicit€statement€in€the€contract€that€the€parties€intended€toÐ L œ Ðreserve€to€themselves€the€benefits€of€their€agreement.Ð 8 ˆ ÐÌà  àStill,€even€if€we€assume,€without€deciding,€that€the€expressions€of€intent€in€the€contracts€areÐ  ` Ðinsufficient€to€exclude€third„party€beneficiary€claims,€we€conclude€under€part€(2)€of€our€analysis€thatÐ ü L  Ðrecognizing€the€plaintiffs€as€beneficiaries€would€not€be€ð ðappropriate€to€effectuate€the€partiesðð€intent.ðð€Ð è 8  ÐThe€plaintiffs€ask€this€Court€to€allow€them,€as€cardholders,€to€enforce€the€no„surcharge€provision€inÐ Ô$  Ðthe€defendantsðð€contracts.€€The€contracts,€however,€already€provide€a€means€for€cardholders€to€obtainÐ À  Ðrelief€from€violations€of€the€ð ðno€surchargeðð€policy.€€Both€the€Visa€and€MasterCard€rules€andÐ ¬ü  Ðregulations€establish€ð ðchargebackðð€procedures€by€which€cardholders€may€complain€to€their€issuingÐ ˜è  Ðbank€of€violations€such€as€improper€surcharges.€€When€the€issuing€bank€receives€a€complaint,€itÐ „Ô  Ðcredits€the€cardholderððs€account€and€issues€to€the€merchant€bank€a€ð ðchargebackðð€for€the€amount€ofÐ pÀ Ðthe€surcharge.€€The€issuing€and€merchant€banks€may€then€either€resolve€the€dispute€amongÐ \¬ Ðthemselves€or€eventually€settle€it€through€arbitration.€€The€chargeback€procedures€are€designed€toÐ H˜ Ðresolve€cardholder€claims€through€internal€dispute€resolution€without€the€need€for€litigation.€Ð 4„ ÐAllowing€cardholders€to€enforce€the€no„surcharge€provisions€in€court€would€bypass€these€procedures,Ð  p Ðthus€undermining€the€partiesðð€agreement€to€resolve€cardholder€disputes€more€efficiently€andÐ  \ Ðinexpensively.€€Therefore,€recognition€of€the€plaintiffsðð€third„party€claims€would€not€be€appropriateÐ øH Ðto€effectuate€the€intention€of€the€parties.Ð ä4 ÐÌà  àEven€if€recognition€of€a€third„party€claim€would€effectuate€the€intention€of€the€parties,Ð ¼  Ðhowever,€the€plaintiffs€do€not€meet€the€requirements€of€either€subsection€(a)€or€(b)€of€the€third€partÐ ¨ø Ðof€our€analysis,€which€distinguishes€intended€beneficiaries€from€incidental€beneficiaries.€€In€this€case,Ð ”ä Ðsubsection€(a)€is€not€satisfied€because€the€promisee,€EFS,€did€not€owe€any€duty€to€the€plaintiffs€thatÐ €Ð Ðwould€be€discharged€by€Flying€Jððs€and€Pilotððs€observation€of€the€no„surcharge€provision.€€TheÐ l¼ Ðplaintiffs€contend€that€they€are€third„party€beneficiaries€of€the€no„surcharge€provisions€in€the€Visa„Ð X ¨ ÐEFS€and€MasterCard„EFS€contracts,€and€their€status€as€beneficiaries€to€those€contracts€imposed€aÐ D!” Ðduty€upon€EFS€which€was€then€discharged€through€the€EFS„Flying€J€and€EFS„Pilot€contracts.€Ð 0"€  ÐHowever,€as€noted€earlier,€we€agree€with€the€Court€of€Appeals€that€the€plaintiffs€were€not€third„partyÐ #l! Ðbeneficiaries€of€the€Visa„EFS€and€MasterCard„EFS€contracts.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú8Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Therefore,€because€the€plaintiffs€wereÐ $X" Ðnot€third„party€beneficiaries€to€the€credit€card€association€contracts,€these€contracts€created€no€dutyÐ ô$D # Ðon€the€part€of€EFS€which€could€be€discharged€through€execution€of€the€merchant€contracts.€Ð à%0!$ ÐTherefore,€the€plaintiffs€are€not€intended€beneficiaries€under€subsection€(a).Ð Ì&"% ÐÐ ¸'#& Ðà  àUnder€subsection€(b),€we€conclude€that€EFS€did€not€intend€to€confer€the€primary€benefit€ofÐ ° Ðthe€no„surcharge€provisions€upon€the€plaintiffs.€€Certainly,€the€plaintiffs€benefitted€from€the€no„Ð œì Ðsurcharge€provisions.€€But€in€examining€the€terms€of€the€entire€contract€and€the€reasons€for€whichÐ ˆØ Ðit€was€created,€it€becomes€clear€that€EFS€intended€not€to€confer€the€contractððs€benefits€uponÐ tÄ Ðcardholders,€but€to€encourage€card€usage€in€order€to€maximize€its€own€profits.€€Under€subsection€(b),Ð `° Ðprofit€motive€on€the€part€of€the€promisee€is€insufficient€to€create€an€enforceable€third„party€right.€Ð L œ ÐRather,€the€promisee€must€clearly€intend€to€confer€the€principal€benefits€of€the€contract€upon€theÐ 8 ˆ Ðthird€party.€€The€contracts€at€issue€here€contain€no€such€evidence€of€intent.Ð $ t ÐÌà  àIn€sum,€we€conclude€that€the€plaintiffs€have€failed€to€prove€that€they€were€intended€third„Ð ü L  Ðparty€beneficiaries€of€the€EFS„Flying€J€and€EFS„Pilot€contracts.€€The€contracts€contain€someÐ è 8  Ðevidence,€though€not€conclusive,€that€the€parties€wished€to€exclude€third„party€beneficiary€claims.€Ð Ô$  ÐMoreover,€allowing€the€plaintiffs€to€enforce€the€contracts€would€undermine€the€dispute€resolutionÐ À  Ðprocedures€established€in€the€contracts€and€thus€would€not€be€appropriate€to€effectuate€the€intentionÐ ¬ü  Ðof€the€parties.€€Finally,€the€plaintiffs€have€not€shown€that€the€contract€or€the€circumstancesÐ ˜è  Ðsurrounding€its€performance€indicate€that€either:€€(a)€the€performance€of€the€promise€will€satisfy€anÐ „Ô  Ðobligation€or€discharge€a€duty€owed€by€the€promisee€to€the€beneficiary;€or€(b)€the€promisee€intendedÐ pÀ Ðto€give€the€beneficiary€the€benefit€of€the€promised€performance.€€Therefore,€we€hold€that€theÐ \¬ Ðplaintiffs€are€incidental€beneficiaries€and,€as€such,€have€no€right€to€enforce€the€contracts.Ð H˜ ÐÌÓ  ÓIV.€€ConclusionÐ  p ÐÓu•ÓÌà  àFor€the€foregoing€reasons,€we€conclude€that€the€plaintiffs€are€not€intended€third„partyÐ øH Ðbeneficiaries€entitled€to€enforce€the€defendantsðð€contracts.€€Accordingly,€we€reverse€the€holding€ofÐ ä4 Ðthe€Court€of€Appeals€to€the€contrary,€and€we€reinstate€the€trial€courtððs€grant€of€summary€judgmentÐ Ð  Ðto€the€defendants.€€Costs€on€this€appeal€are€taxed€to€the€plaintiffs,€Owner„Operator€IndependentÐ ¼  ÐDrivers€Association,€Inc.,€Harold€Landry,€Jimmy€Hux€(d/b/a€Hux€Trucking),€Richard€Kershman,€andÐ ¨ø ÐLaurel€Barrick,€for€which€execution€may€issue€if€necessary.Ð ”ä ÐÌÌÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àà  à___________________________________€Ð D!” Ðà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àà h àà À àà  àADOLPHO€A.€BIRCH,€JR.,€JUSTICE